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An Outline of
Analytical Psychology The essay appears
in the book An American
Jungian: In Honor of Edward F. Edinger, edited by George R. Elder and
Dianne D. Cordic ( Analytical Psychology is the school of depth psychology based on the
discoveries and concepts of Carl Gustav Jung. Jung gave the broadest and most
comprehensive view of the human psyche yet
available. His writings include a fully-developed theory of the structure and
dynamics of the psyche in both its conscious and unconscious aspects, a
detailed theory of personality types and, most important, a full description
of the universal, primordial images deriving from the deepest layers of the
unconscious psyche. These primordial images are called archetypes of the collective unconscious.
The latter discovery has enabled Jung to describe striking parallels between
the unconscious images produced by individuals in dream and vision and the
universal motifs found in the religions and mythologies of all ages. The concept of the
collective unconscious gives analytical psychology an added dimension in
comparison with other schools of psychotherapy. It takes the theory and
practice of psychotherapy out of the exclusive realm of psychopathology and
relates it to the whole history of the evolution of the human psyche in all
its cultural manifestations. The practice of analytical psychology thus becomes
not only a therapy for neurosis but also a technique for psychological
development applicable to normal and superior individuals. An abstract,
theoretical presentation is alien to Jung who always strove to engage the
response of the whole man, not just the intellect. This presentation should
thus be recognized as no more than a two-dimensional sketch of a
three-dimensional reality. Libido: The psychic energy that directs and
motivates the personality is called libido.
Interest, attention and drive are all expressions of libido. The libido
invested in a given item is indicated by how highly it is valued. Libido can
be transformed or displaced but not destroyed. If the libido attached to one
object disappears, it reappears elsewhere. Libido is the dynamism of the life
process manifested in the psychic sphere. The theory of libido is
closely connected with the law of
opposites. The processes of the psyche depend on a tension and
interplay between opposite poles. If one side of a pair of opposites becomes
excessively predominant in the personality, it is likely to turn into its
contrary. This is called enantiodromia.
A one-sided conscious attitude constellates its opposite in the unconscious.
See Jung's essay "On Psychic Energy" (1). Psychological
Types: Analytical
psychology distinguishes several psychological
types. These refer to innate differences in temperament which
cause individuals to perceive and react to life in different fashions. There
are two attitude types, the extravert and the introvert. The extravert is characterized by an innate
tendency for the libido to flow outwards, connecting the individual with the
external world. The extravert naturally and spontaneously gives greatest
interest and value to the object
- people, things, external accomplishments, etc. He or she will be most
comfortable and successful when functioning in the external world and human
relationships, and will be restless and ill at ease when alone without
diversion. Having little relation to the inner world of subjectivity, the
extravert will shun it and tend to depreciate subjective concerns as morbid
or selfish. The introvert is characterized by a
tendency for the libido to flow inwards connecting him or her with the
subjective, inner world of thought, fantasies and feelings. Greatest interest
and value is given to the subject
- the inner reactions and images. The introvert will function most
satisfactorily when free from pressure to adapt to external circumstances. He
or she prefers their own company and is reserved or uncomfortable in large
groups. Both introvert and
extravert have the defects of their strengths and each tends to undervalue
the other. To the extravert, the introvert appears self-centered and
withholding of himself. To the introvert, the extravert appears shallow,
opportunistic and hypocritical. Every individual
possesses both tendencies, but one is usually more developed than the other.
As a pair of opposites they follow the law of opposites. Thus, an excessive,
one-sided emphasis on one attitude is likely to lead to the emergence of its
opposite. The opposite, however, because it is undeveloped and
undifferentiated, will appear in a negative, crude and unadapted
form. Thus the extreme extravert will become a victim of negative inferior
introversion in the form of depressions. The extreme introvert is likely to
have episodes of compulsive extraversion which are crude, ineffectual and unadapted to outer reality. In addition to attitude
types, we also distinguish four function
types. The four basic psychological functions are thinking, feeling, sensation
and intuition. Thinking is the rational capacity to structure
and synthesize discrete data by means of conceptual generalizations. Feeling is the function which determines
value. It is the function that values and promotes human relationships. Sensation is that function which
perceives and adapts to external reality via the senses. Intuition is defined as perception via
the unconscious, that is, the perception of representations or conclusions
whose origin is obscure. These four functions arrange themselves into two
pairs of opposites: thinking - feeling and sensation - intuition. Although every
individual has all four functions potentially at their disposal, in actuality
one function is usually more fully developed than the others. This is called
the superior function. The one
least developed is the one that is most primitive and unconscious - the inferior function. Often a second function
will have achieved considerable development which approaches that of the
superior function. This is an auxiliary
function. Since any one of the four functions may be superior, we
have the possibility of four function
types: the thinking type,
feeling type, sensation type, and intuitive type. The thinking type is found more often in men
than in women. The thinking type's mental life is concerned largely with the
creation of intellectual formulae and the fitting of all life experience into
these forms. To the degree that the individual is identified with the thinking
function and unconscious of the other functions, the thinking will tend to be
autocratic and limit the full experience of life. Since feeling will be the
inferior function, its values will suffer the most neglect. Human
relationships will be quickly sacrificed if they interfere with the ruling
formula. The feeling type is found more often in women than in men. The
development and sustenance of personal relationships is the major aim. A sensitivity to human needs and a willingness to meet
them is its outstanding characteristic. It finds its greatest satisfaction in
rapport with others. In its extreme, this function type can be objectionable
in its excessive emphasis on personal matters. Since thinking is the inferior
function, its capacity for abstract, impersonal judgments will be neglected
or denied. Thinking will be accepted only so long as it plays a subservient
role to the interests of feeling values. The sensation type is characterized by the
excellent adaptation to simple, matter-of-fact reality. He or she is content
to relate to life on its most elementary terms without subtlety, reflection
or imagination. The sensation type appears stable and earthy but may lack
creative spark. Vision and imagination, which could mitigate this earthbound
state, are products of intuition, which is the inferior function of this
type. The sensation type, in fact, will often depreciate intuitive
expressions as unrealistic fantasies and thus be deprived of badly needed
leaven at times of mental heaviness. The intuitive type is motivated chiefly be a
steady stream of new visions and possibilities, derived from active
intuition. The new, the strange and the different are a constant lure. He or
she often perceives obscure connections between things which seem separate
and unrelated. The intuitive mind works in quick jumps, which is sometimes
difficult for others to follow. When asked to proceed more slowly, he or she
is apt to become impatient, perhaps considering listeners slow in making
connections. This type's weakness lies in its inferior sensation function.
The relationship to reality may be poor. The hard work required to bring a
possibility into actuality or to make an intuitive flash generally accepted
seems too onerous. He or she may remain misunderstood with insights, which if
they are to bear fruit, must be patiently developed by others. The function types are
seldom as definite as would appear by these descriptions. Usually the
development of an auxiliary function will soften and modify the sharp
characteristics here described. In addition, we have a further complication.
According to the attitude type, each of the function types may have either an
introverted or an extraverted orientation. Ideally, all four
functions should be available to the individual in order to have a complete
response to life experience. It is one of the goals of Jungian psychotherapy
to bring in to consciousness and to aid the development of the inferior
undeveloped functions in order to approach psychic wholeness. Many conflicts in human
relationships and disputes can be understood through the theory of
psychological types. For instance, Jung has explained the difference between
the psychological theories of Freud and Adler on this basis. Freud's theory
is concerned chiefly with the individual's need for and love of the object.
Thus it is an extraverted theory. Adler's theory is based on the individual's
need to maintain his own self-esteem, prestige and power. Adler emphasizes
the inner, subjective need; hence his is an introverted theory. Differences in type can
underlie difficulties in interpersonal relationships. Marital conflicts are
often related to differences in psychological type. Knowledge of one's own
type and of the fact that other equally valid types exist can often help to relativize one's own personal reactions and can lead to
more conscious and fruitful human relationships. (2) Structure of the Psyche: The psyche can be divided into conscious and unconscious aspects. The ego
is the center of conscious and the starting point for all empirical
psychology. It is the seat of individual identity, and all contents which are
conscious, must be connected with it. The unconscious
includes all psychic elements which are outside conscious awareness and
therefore are not connected with the ego. Contents of the
unconscious are first encountered as complexes.
A complex is an emotionally
charged unconscious psychic entity made up of a number of associated ideas
and images clustered around a central core. On investigation, this core is
found to be an archetypal image
(see below). One recognizes that a complex has been struck by the emergence
of an affect which upsets psychic balance and disturbs the customary function
of the ego. The ego stands between
the inner world and the outer world, and its task is to adapt to both. By its
extraverted orientation, it relates itself to external reality. By
introversion, it perceives and adapts to inner, subjective reality. The
requirement for external adaptation leads to the construction of a psychic structure
which mediates between the ego and the external world of society. This
mediating structure is called the persona,
the Latin word for the ancient actor's mask. It is the partially calculated
public face an individual assumes towards others. The persona is composed of
various elements, some based on the individual's personal propensities and
others derived from the society's expectations and the early training of
parents and teachers. The persona is a
mediating compromise between individuality and the expectations of others. It
is the role one plays in society. It is also a protective covering that
shields from public view what is personal, intimate and vulnerable. The
characteristic symbol for the persona is the clothes we wear. Dreams
involving missing or inappropriate clothes refer to a persona problem.
Ideally a persona should be appropriate, well fitting and flexible. It is
especially important that the individual realize that he is not identical
with his persona. The persona sometimes
lends one a prestige and authority belonging to the collective group which is
not properly used for personal ends. To identify with the persona can cause
inflation and alienation from reality. Other persona disorders include a lack
of persona which leaves the individual sensitive and exposed to every social
touch, and a too rigid, defensive persona which is a barrier to realistic
adaptation. For further discussion of the persona, see (3). Just as the persona
stands between the ego and the outer world, so another psychic entity stands
between the ego and the inner world of unconscious. This entity is called the
shadow. The shadow is a
composite of personal characteristics and potentialities of which the
individual is unaware. Usually the shadow, as indicated by the word, contains
inferior characteristics and weaknesses which the ego's self-esteem will not
permit it to recognize. The shadow may be
personified in dreams by such figures as criminals, drunkards and derelicts.
Technically it must be of the same sex as the dreamer. As with all
unconscious contents, the shadow is first experienced in projection. This
means that an unconscious quality of one's own is first recognized and
reacted to when it is discovered in an outer object. So long as the shadow is
projected, the individual can hate and condemn freely the weakness and evil
seen in others while maintaining a sense of righteousness. Discovery of the
shadow as a personal content may, if it is sudden, cause temporary confusion
and depression. This will be most likely if the ego's previous attitude has
bee especially inflated. The shadow is the first
layer of the unconscious to be encountered in psychological analysis. It is
not always a negative content. In many cases unconscious positive
potentialities of the personality reside in the shadow. In such cases we
speak of a positive shadow.
Furthermore, the evil and dangerous aspect of the shadow is often due more to
its circumstances than to its essence. Just as animals which have become
vicious by starvation and brutal treatment can be changed into loyal
companions by loving care, so the shadow loses much of its negative aspect
when given conscious acceptance and attention. The problem of the
shadow and its projection applies to collective psychology as well. The persecution
of the Jews by the Nazis is a terrifying example of the extent to which a
collective shadow projection can go. The same psychological mechanism
operates in discrimination against other minority groups. For more on the
shadow, see (4). The first layer of the
unconscious, the shadow, is also called by Jung the personal unconscious, as distinguished
from the collective unconscious. The personal unconscious or shadow contains
personal contents belonging to the individual himself which can and properly
should be made conscious and integrated into the conscious personality and
ego. The collective unconscious, on the other hand, is composed of
transpersonal, universal contents which cannot be assimilated by the ego.
Between these two layers of the unconscious, the personal and the collective,
is another entity with, so to speak, one foot on each side. This is the anima in a man and the animus in a woman. The anima is an autonomous psychic content
in the male personality which can be described as an inner woman. She is the
psychic representation of the contrasexual elements
in man and is depicted in symbolic imagery by figures of women ranging from
harlot and seductress to divine wisdom and spiritual guide. She is the
personification of the feminine principle
in man, the principle of Eros,
pertaining to love and relatedness. The projection of the anima is
responsible for the phenomenon of a man's "falling in love." Too
much identification of the ego with the anima causes the man to outwardly
manifest feminine qualities. Anima
moods or states
of anima possession can be
recognized by their characteristic features of resentment and emotional
withdrawal. Such a condition renders a man psychically paralyzed and
impotent. It is most likely to occur in relation to a woman with whom he is
emotionally and sexually involved. With full psychological development, the
anima leads the man to the full meaning of human relationship and provides
him an entrance to the deeper layers of the psyche, the collective
unconscious. The animus is the corresponding representative of the
masculine contrasexual elements in the psychology
of women. It can be expressed in symbolic imagery by a multitude of male
figures from frightening, aggressive men threatening rape to divining
bringers of light. It is the personification of the masculine principle in women, the
principle of Logos, which is
the capacity for rationality and consciousness. A woman's "falling in
love" is likewise due to the projection of the animus. Subjective
identification of the ego with the animus causes the woman to lose contact
with her feminine nature and to take on more masculine qualities. The animus-possessed woman is more
interested in power than in relatedness. As with the man's anima, the animus
is most often activated in relation to an emotionally significant man,
especially a man with whom she is sexually involved. Indeed, the anima and
animus have a marked affinity for each other. The slightest evidence of one
is likely to evoke the other in the partner. With maturity and maximum
development, the animus can become a valuable psychic entity enabling the
woman to function with objective rationality and, similarly to the anima in a
man, opens to her the collective unconscious. Further discussion of anima and
animus is in (5) and (6). The collective unconscious, more recently
termed objective psyche, is the
deepest layer of the unconscious which is ordinarily inaccessible to
conscious awareness. Its nature is universal, suprapersonal
and non-individual. Its manifestations are experienced as something alien to
the ego, numinous or divine. The contents of the collective unconscious are
called archetypes and their
particular symbolic manifestations, archetypal
images. The concept of the
archetype has a close relation to the concept of instinct. An instinct is a pattern of behavior which is
inborn and characteristic for a certain species. Instincts are discovered by
observing the behavior patterns of individual organisms. The instincts are
the unknown motivating dynamisms that determine an animal's behavior on the
biological level. An archetype is to the
psyche what an instinct is to the body. The existence of archetypes is
inferred by the same process as that by which we infer the existence of
instincts. Just as instincts common to a species are postulated by observing
the uniformities in biological behavior, so archetypes are inferred by
observing the uniformities in psychic phenomena. Just as instincts are
unknown motivating dynamisms of biological behavior, archetypes are unknown
motivating dynamisms of the psyche. Archetypes are the psychic instincts of
the human species. Although biological instincts and psychic archetypes have
a very close connection, exactly what this connection is we do not know any
more than we understand just how the mind and body are connected. Archetypes are perceived and experienced subjectively through certain
universal, typical, recurring mythological motifs and images. These archetypal images, symbolically elaborated in various
ways, are the basic contents of religions, mythologies, legends and fairy
tales of all ages. Such images also emerge from the collective unconscious of
individuals through dreams and visions in cases of deep psychological
analysis, profound subjective experience or major mental disorder. The
experience of encountering an archetypal image has a strong emotional impact
which conveys a sense of divine or suprapersonal
power transcending the individual ego. Such an experience often transforms
the individual and radically alters their outlook on life. Archetypal images are
so various and numerous that they defy comprehensive listing. For our
purposes, we shall describe four broad categories of archetypal imagery. I. The Archetype of the Great Mother, the
personification of the feminine principle, represents the fertile womb out of
which all life comes and the darkness of the grave to which it returns. Its
fundamental attributes are the capacity to nourish and to devour. It
corresponds to mother nature in the primordial swamp - life being constantly
spawned and constantly devoured. If the great mother nourishes us, she is
good; if she threatens to devour us, she is bad. In psychological terms, the
great mother corresponds to the unconscious which can nourish and support the
ego or can swallow it up in psychosis or suicide. The positive, creative
aspects of the great mother are represented by breast and womb. The negative,
destructive aspects appear as the devouring mouth or the vagina dentata.
In more abstract symbolism, anything hollow, concave or containing pertains
to the great mother. Thus, bodies of water, the earth itself, caves,
dwellings, vessels of all kinds are feminine. So also is the box, the coffin
and the belly of the monster which swallows up its victims. See Neumann(7). II. The Archetype of the Spiritual Father.
As the great mother pertains to nature, matter and earth, the great father
archetype pertains to the ream of light and spirit. It is the personification
of the masculine principle of consciousness symbolized by the upper solar
region of heaven. From this region comes the wind, pneuma, nous, ruach, which has always been the
symbol of spirit as opposed to matter. Sun and rain likewise represent the
masculine principle as fertilizing forces which impregnate the receptive
earth. Images of piercing and penetration such as phallus, knife, spear,
arrow and ray all pertain to the spiritual father. Feathers, birds, airplanes
and all that refers to flying or height are part of this complex of symbols
which emphasizes the upper heavenly realms. In addition, all imagery
involving light or illumination pertain to the
masculine principle as opposed to the dark earthiness of the great mother.
Illumination of the countenance, crowns, halos and dazzling brilliance of all
kinds are aspects of masculine solar symbolism. The image of the wise old man as judge, priest, doctor or
elder is a human personification of this same archetype. The positive aspect
of the spiritual father principle conveys law, order, discipline,
rationality, understanding and inspiration. Its negative aspect is that it
may lead to alienation from concrete reality causing inflation, a state of
spiritual hubris or presumption that generates grandiose thoughts of
transcendence and results in the fate of Icarus or
Phaeton. III. The Archetype of Transformation pertains
to a psychic process of growth, change and transition. It can express itself
in many different images with the same underlying core of meaning. Perilous
journeys to unknown destinations, exploration of dark places, purposeful
descent to the underworld or under the sea or into the belly of a monster to
find a hidden treasure are expressions of this archetype. The theme of death and
rebirth as well as the symbolism of initiation rites in all of their various
forms; the crossing of rivers or waters or chasms and the climbing of
mountains; the theme of redemption, salvation or recovery of what has been
lost or degraded, wherever it appears in mythological or unconscious
symbolism - all of these are expressions of the archetype of transformation. The theme of the birth
of the hero or wonder-child also belongs to this archetype. This image
expresses the emergence of a new, dynamic content in the personality
presaging decisive change and enlargement of consciousness. (8) A rich and complex
example of this archetype is provided by the symbolism of medieval alchemy.
In alchemy, the psychic transformation process was projected into matter. The
goal of the alchemists was to transmute base matter into gold or some other
supremely valuable object. The imagery of alchemy derives from the collective
unconscious and belongs properly to the psychological process of
transformation.(9) IV. The Central Archetype, The Self,
expresses psychic wholeness or totality. The Self
is defined by Jung as both the center and circumference of the psyche. It
incorporates within its paradoxical unity all the opposites embodied in the
masculine and feminine archetypes. Since it is a borderline concept referring
to an entity which transcends and encompasses the individual ego, we can only
allude to it and not encompass it by a definition. As the central archetype
is emerging, it often appears as a process of centering or as a process
involving the union of opposites. Alchemical symbolism
gives us numerous examples of the central archetype as a union of opposites.
For example, the philosopher's stone, one of the goals of the alchemical
process, was depicted as resulting from the marriage of the red king and the
white queen, or from the union of the sun and moon, or fire and water. The
product of such a union is a paradoxical image often described as
hermaphroditic. Other images which are used to express the union of opposites
are the reconciliation of opposing partisan factions and the reconciliation
of good and evil, God and Satan. The emerging central
archetype gives rise to images of the mandala. The term mandala is used to describe the representations of the
Self, the archetype of totality. The typical mandala
in its simplest form is a quadrated circle
combining the elements of a circle with a center plus a square, a cross or
some other expression of fourfoldness. Mandalas are found everywhere in all times and
places. They seem to represent a basic unifying and integrating principle
which lies at the very root of the psyche. Mandalas
can be found in the cultural products of all races. A fully developed mandala usually emerges in an individual's dreams only
after a long process of psychological development. It is then experienced as
a release from an otherwise irreconcilable conflict and may convey a numinous
awareness of life as something ultimately harmonious and meaningful in spite
of its apparent contradictions. (10,11) Psychological
Development is
the progressive emergence and differentiation of the ego or consciousness
from the original state of unconsciousness. It is a process which, ideally,
continues throughout the lifetime of the individual. In contradistinction to
physical development, there is no time at which one can say that full psychic
development has been achieved. Although we may distinguish various stages of
development for descriptive purposes, actually one stage merges into another
in a single fluid continuum. In the early phase, the
ego has very little autonomy. It is largely in a state of identification with
the objective psyche within and the external world without. It lives in the
world of archetypes and makes no clear distinction between inner and outer
objects. This primitive state of ego development is called, after Lיvy-Bruhl, participation mystique, and is shared by both the
primitive and the child. It is a state of magical participation and
interpretation between the ego and its surroundings. What is ego and what is
non-ego are not distinguished. Inner world and outer world are experienced as
a single totality. This primitive state of participation mystique is also
evident in the phenomena of mob psychology in which individual consciousness
and responsibility are temporarily eclipsed by identification with a
collective dynamism. Jung made no effort to
present a systematic theory of psychological development. However, some of
his followers, especially Neumann(12),
have attempted to fill in this gap. Following Neumann, the stages of
psychological development can be described as follows. The first or original state is called the uroboric stage, derived from uroborus,
the circular image of the tail-eating serpent. It refers to the original totality
and self-containment which is prior to the birth of consciousness. The ego
exists only as a latent potentiality in a state of primary identity with the Self or objective psyche. This
state is presumed to pertain during the prenatal period and early infancy. The transition between
this state and the second stage of development corresponds to the creation of
the world for the individual psyche. Thus world creation myths refer to this
first decisive event in psychic development - the birth of the ego out of the
unconscious. The basic theme of all creation myths is separation. Out of
undifferentiated wholeness one element is discriminated from another. It may
be expressed as the creation of light - the separation of light from
darkness, or as the separation of the world parents - the distinction between
masculine and feminine, or the emergence of order out of chaos. In each case
the meaning is the same, namely, the birth of consciousness, the capacity to
discriminate between opposites. The second stage of psychological
development is called the matriarchal
phase. Although beginning consciousness has appeared, it is as yet
only dim and fitful. The nascent ego is still largely passive and dependent
on its uroboric matrix which now takes on the
aspect of the great mother. Masculine and feminine elements are not yet
clearly differentiated so that the great mother will still be
undifferentiated as to sex. To this stage belongs the image of the phallic
mother incorporating both masculine and feminine components. Here, the ruling
psychic entity is the great mother. The predominant concern will be to seek
her nourishment and support and to avoid her destructive, devouring aspect.
The father archetype or masculine principle has not yet emerged into separate
existence. Mother is still all. The ego has achieved only a precarious
separation and is still dependent on the unconscious, which is personified as
the great mother. The matriarchal phase
is represented mythologically by the imagery of the
ancient Near Eastern mother religions, for example, the Cybele-Attis
myth. Attis, the son-lover of Cybele,
was unfaithful to her. In a frenzy of regret, reflecting his dependent
bondage, he was castrated and killed. The matriarchal phase corresponds to
the Oedipal phase as described
by Freud. However, analytical psychologists interpret incest symbolically
rather than literally as was done by Freud. The matriarchal phase is the
phase of original incest, symbolically speaking, prior
to the emergence of the incest taboo. In the life of the individual, this
phase corresponds roughly with the early years of childhood. The third stage is
called the patriarchal phase.
The transition is characterized by particular themes, images and actions. In
an attempt to break free from the matriarchal phase, the feminine with all
its attributes is rejected and depreciated. The theme of initiation rituals
pertains to this period of transition. The father archetype or masculine
principle emerges in full force and claims the allegiance of the individual.
Tests, challenges, rules and discipline are set up in opposition to the
sympathy and comfortable containment of the great mother. The incest taboo is
erected prohibiting regression to the mother-bound state. Once the transition to
the patriarchal stage has been accomplished, the archetype of the great
father, the masculine spirit principle, determines the values and goals of
life. Consciousness, individual responsibility, self-discipline and
rationality will be the prevailing values. Everything pertaining to the
feminine principle will be repressed, depreciated or subordinated to
masculine ends. In childhood development, the patriarchal phase will be
particularly evident in the years preceding puberty. The fourth phase is
designated the integrative phase.
The preceding patriarchal stage has left the individual one-sided and
incomplete. The feminine principle, woman and therefore the anima and the
unconscious have been repressed and neglected. Another change or transition
is thus needed to redeem these neglected psychic elements. This transition phase
also has its characteristic imagery. The most typical myth is the hero
fighting the dragon. In this archetypal story, a beautiful maiden is in
captivity to a dragon or monster. The maiden is the anima, the precious but
neglected feminine principle which has been rejected and depreciated in the
previous patriarchal phase of development. The monster represents the
residual uroboric state, the great mother in its
destructive, devouring aspect. The anima or feminine value is still attached
to this dangerous element and can be freed only by heroic action. The hero
represents the necessary ego attitude that is willing to relinquish the
safety of the conventional patriarchal standards and expose himself once again to the unconscious, the dangers of
regression and bondage to the woman in order to redeem a lost but necessary
element, the anima. If this is successful, the anima or feminine principle is
raised to its proper value modifying and completing the previous one-sided
patriarchal attitude. This is a decisive step
in psychological integration that amounts to a reconciliation of opposites;
masculine and feminine, law and love, conscious and unconscious, spirit and
nature. In individual development of the youth, this phase corresponds to the
emerging capacity to relate to girls during puberty which is subsequently
followed by love for a particular woman and eventually marriage. It should be understood
that although these phases of psychic development have been related to
various periods in the development of the child and young man, their meaning
is not confined to these external events. The end of psychological
development is not reached with the event of marriage. Such external
happenings are only the external manifestations of an archetypal process of
development which still awaits its inner realization. Furthermore, the series
of psychological stages here described can be traversed not once but many
times in the course of psychic development. These stages are, so to speak,
successive way stations that we return to again and again in the course of a
spiral journey which takes one over the same course repeatedly but each time
on a different level of conscious awareness.* *The
foregoing account of development refers particularly to masculine psychology.
Although the same stages of development apply to a woman, they will be
experienced in a somewhat different way. Relevant myths are those of Demeter
and Persephone and Amor and Psyche. See Neumann's
excellent commentary on Amor and Psyche.(13) Jung's major
contribution to developmental psychology is his concept of individuation. The
term refers to a developmental process which begins in the adult individual,
usually after the age of thirty-five, and if successful leads to the
discovery of the Self and the replacing of the ego by it as the personality
center. Individuation is the
discovery of and the extended dialogue with the objective psyche of which the
Self is the comprehensive expression. It begins with one or more decisive
experiences challenging egocentricity and producing an awareness that the ego
is subject to a more comprehensive psychic entity. Although the full fruits
of the individuation process only appear in the second half of life, the
evolving relation between the ego and the objective psyche is a continuous
one from birth to death. The Process of Psychotherapy: Psychotherapy
is a systematic examination and cultivation of the inner life. It is
applicable not only to neurosis and mental disorders but also to those with a
normal psychology who wish to promote their own psychological development. A
unique and comprehensive technique has been developed. The basic instrument
of this procedure is the personality of the psychotherapist. Major care and
attention is thus given to the selection and training of potential
psychotherapists. The primary requirement
for a psychotherapist is that he or she has experienced a thorough personal
analysis which leads to a high level of psychological development. It is a
basic axiom that a therapist can lead his patient's psychic development no
further than he himself has gone. Fundamentally, it is the patient's
opportunity to have a living relationship and dialogue with a more developed
conscious personality that produces the healing effect. After the initial
consultation, when the decision is made to begin work with a particular
psychotherapist, the procedure is started by taking a detailed anamnesis. This is a historical summary
and discussion of all significant life experiences in chronological order
which the patient can recall. Next comes an
examination of the current life situation with particular emphasis on areas
that are felt to be problematical. Only when the past and the present have
been explored adequately, so far as they are available to consciousness, does
the therapist turn attention to the unconscious. The major approach to
the unconscious is through dream
interpretation. A dream
is considered to be an expression of the objective psyche describing in
symbolic language the nature of the current psychic situation. The
understanding of dreams thus becomes a powerful aid in the growth of
consciousness. A dream is a symbol. This term has a particular
connotation in analytical psychology. A symbol is not a sign and does not
stand for a known meaning that could be expressed equally well in another
way. A symbol is an image or form giving the best expression available to a
content whose meaning is still largely unknown. On the basis of this
definition it is clear that a symbol (or dream) cannot be interpreted as
though it were a sign standing for a well-known meaning. It must be
approached by the method of analogy
which amplifies the unknown meaning to the point of visibility. In analytical
psychology, the interpretation of dreams is undertaken by amplification. The method has two
aspects, personal amplification
and general amplification. Personal
amplification
is done by asking the patient for associations
to each of the specific items and figures in the dream. Associations are the spontaneous
feelings, thoughts and memories that come to mind concerning the given item
in the dream. The total of the associations to all the elements in the dream
provide the personal context of the dream and often lead to a significant meaning.
General
amplification
is done by the psychotherapist on the basis of personal knowledge. It
provides the collective, archetypal associations to the dream elements. Here
is where the therapist's knowledge of the collective or objective psyche is
put to use. When a dream contains an archetypal image or theme, the therapist
demonstrates this by presenting parallel imagery from mythology, legend and
folklore. General amplification establishes the collective context of the
dream enabling it to be seen as referring not only to a personal psychic
problem but also to a general, collective problem common to all human
experience. General amplification introduces the patient to the collective or
objective psyche and at the same time helps the process of disidentifying the ego from the objective psyche. As long
as the patient experiences his problems and his dreams as referring only to
his personal psychology, his ego remains largely identified with the
objective psyche and he carries a burden of collective guilt and
responsibility not properly personal which can paralyze his capacity to
function. In addition to dreams,
imaginative and expressive activity of all kinds is encouraged. Drawing,
painting, sculpture, story writing, etc., may be suggested as means of
expressing emerging unconscious material. Such creative products are then
examined in much the same way as dreams. Even without analytic
interpretation, the effort to give verbal or visual expression to unconscious
images can often be very useful. The objectification of a psychic image, by
painting for instance, can help to disidentify the
ego from the unconscious and may release a sum of psychic energy. At a later stage of
psychotherapy another important technique is introduced in suitable cases.
This is called active imagination.
This procedure must be learned and requires considerable experience to use.
There must be discrimination in its use since in some cases there is danger
that it might activate unconscious contents that cannot be controlled.
Properly used, however, it is a very valuable technique. Active imagination is a
process of conscious, deliberate participation in fantasy. It often takes the
form of a dialogue between the ego and a fantasy figure - perhaps the shadow
or anima. It can be extremely helpful in bringing an unconscious content into
consciousness especially when the ego feels it has reached an impasse. To the
degree that a patient can independently use active imagination successfully,
there will be less need for the help of the therapist. Indeed, the
development of this technique often leads to the termination of formal
psychotherapy since the patient then has the capacity to relate to and deal
with the unconscious. A very common and
important phenomenon in psychotherapy is the transference.
This refers to the emotional involvement, either positive or negative, based
on unconscious factors which the patient feels for the psychotherapist. The
transference is due to the projection of unconscious contents onto the
therapist. Such projection may have varying kinds of content and intensity.
Commonly, an early form of the projection is an expectation of being treated
in the same way as the patient had been treated by the parent of the same sex
as the analyst. However, in a deep transference after the analysis of these
superficial aspects, it is generally found that the transference is based on
the projection of the Self onto the analyst. The analyst then becomes endowed
with all the awesome power and authority of the deity. So long as this
projection prevails, the relationship to the therapist will be the container
for the highest life value. This is because the Self is the center and source
of psychic life, and contact with it must be preserved at all cost. As long
as the therapist is carrying the projection of the Self, the relationship
between the therapist and patient will be equivalent to connection with the
Self, which is vital to the patient's psyche. To the degree that this
projection can be consciously recognized, dependence on the therapist will be
replaced progressively by an inner relatedness to the Self. Through the
intermediary step of experiencing and living through the transference, the
patient will gradually reach awareness of the inner power and authority of
the objective psyche as it is manifested internally.(14) Synchronicity is the term Jung coined for a
postulated acausal connecting principle to explain
the occurrence of meaningful coincidences. The phenomenon of synchronicity
stands on the borderline of human knowledge and what is said about it must
remain tentative. Nevertheless, there is a growing body of evidence
indicating that under certain circumstances events in the outer world
coincided meaningfully with inner psychic states. Evidence of extrasensory
perception and parapsychological experiments
indicate this. Synchronistic events
are often encountered during an analysis of the unconscious, particularly
when the objective psyche has been activated. Sometimes, for instance, the
pertinent associations to a dream refer to life experiences that occur after the dream rather than before it.
Evidence is accumulating that the objective psyche functions beyond the
categories of time and space. Dreams thus can allude to future events as well
as to past events. Whether or not an event
can be considered an example of synchronicity depends on the individual's
subjective response - whether he feels it to be a meaningful coincidence.
Obviously such subjective judgments cannot be verified by objective
statistical methods. Such subjective experiences are the empirical data of
psychology. On this subjective basis it is known that synchronistic events do
occur, sometimes with a numinous impact on the individual. The full significance
of synchronicity is still to be discovered. We already have hints from what
is so far known that at some point the objective psyche may emerge with outer
physical reality to form a unitary reality transcending the antithesis of
subject and object.(15) Bibliography 1. Jung, C.G. The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche.
Collected Works, Vol. 8, Bollingen Series XX.
Pantheon, 2. Jung, C.G. Psychological Types. Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 3. Jung, C.G. Two Essays on Analytical Psychology.
Collected Works, Vol. 7, Bollingen Series XX.
Pantheon, 4. von Franz,
Marie-Louise. "The Process of Individuation," in Man and His Symbols, edited by C.G.
Jung, Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 1964, pp. 168-172. 5. Jung, C.G. Two Essays, pp. 186-209. 6. von Franz,
Marie-Louise, pp. 177-195. 7. Neumann, Erich. The Great Mother. Bollingen
Series XLVII. Pantheon, 8. Jung, C.G. Symbols of Transformation, Collected
Works, Vol. 5, Bollingen Series XX. Pantheon, 9. Jung, C.G. Psychology and Alchemy, Collected Works,
Vol. 12, Bollingen Series XX. Pantheon, 10. Jung, C.G.
"Concerning Mandala Symbolism," in The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious,
Collected Works, Vol. 9 (1), Bollingen Series XX.
Pantheon, 11. von Franz,
Marie-Louise, pp. 196-211. 12. Neumann, Erich. The Origins and History of Consciousness,
Bollingen Series XLII. Pantheon, 13. Neumann, Erich. Amor and Psyche, Bollingen
Series LIV. Pantheon, 14. Jung, C.G. The Practice of Psychotherapy, Collected
Works, Vol. 16, Bollingen Series XX. Pantheon, 15. Jung, C.G.
"Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting
Principle," in Structure and Dynamics
of the Psyche, pp. 417-419. AN OUTLINE OF
ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY, by Edward F. Edinger, M.D., was first published in
Quadrant, a publication of the Jung Foundation for Analytical Psychology, Inc.,
The essay appears in the book An American
Jungian: In Honor of Edward F. Edinger, edited by George R. Elder and
Dianne D. Cordic ( |
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